The Development of the English Bible
There has been in recent years a marked revival of interest in Scripture reading. The older translations were considered inadequate in several respects, and the need grew for a modern version in idiomatic English. In response to this demand, scholars in England and the United States have published new translations. Confining ourselves first to Catholic productions, there is the Spencer New Testament from the original Greek, published in 1937; Confraternity edition of the New Testament, issued in 1911 by the Biblical scholars of the country under the patronage of the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine; the Confraternity Old Testament, now in preparation. In England, the Westminster Version has been in the process of translation for many years, while Msgr. Ronald A. Knox has given us a version of the New Testament, and has recently issued the second half of the Old Testament. We cannot hope to appreciate these modern presentations fully unless we view them in the light of the past, with reference to the whole history of the English Bible. This history shows us a constant process of development from the seventh century up to the present.
No Need of Vernacular Bible in Early Centuries
The first missioners to England — Augustine and his followers in the south, and Aidan and the Irish monks in the north — entered a land which was illiterate and semi-barbaric. The process of civilizing went hand in hand with the process of conversion. Yet, it was beyond the resources of the seventh-century Church to provide schools for all. As a result, for some centuries the clerics formed the majority of literate Englishmen. For them, since they usually had some acquaintance with Latin, the language of the Church, there was no need of a vernacular Bible. The rest of the people received their knowledge of the Scriptures through oral instruction. But as early as 650 Caedmon, a monk of Whitby Abbey, produced a poetic paraphrase of much of the material contained in the Old Testament. At the beginning of the eighth century Bishop Aldhelm of Sherborne translated the Psalms into Anglo-Saxon. Shortly after Aldhelm's time the Venerable Bede, who was reputed to be the foremost scholar of the age, rendered at least a part of the New Testament into the language of his day. This tradition was continued in the following century by King Alfred, the scholar-king, who translated for his people the Ten Commandments and parts of the Law of Moses and possibly the Psalter as well. The tenth century saw a complete translation of the Gospels done in a West Saxon dialect. Contemporaneous with this work was Abbot Aelfric's translation of a considerable portion of the Old Testament. The time seemed not far distant when a translation of the whole Bible would be made. Unfortunately, the Norman Conquest in 1066 put an end to any such hope, for it sounded the death-knell of Anglo-Saxon as a literary language.
For a century or so after the Conquest the language was in a continuous state of flux. Eventually the union of the Anglo-Saxon dialects with Norman-French produced what is known as Middle English, though even this was not one language, but rather a group of separate dialects. Literacy was now becoming more general in England, and the outcome was a literary revival. In the thirteenth century we find metrical versions of Genesis and Exodus, and also a work called Cursor Mundi, which narrated at some length the history of Judaism and Christianity. About 1300 a verse translation of the Psalter was issued, and shortly afterwards prose versions appeared in several dialects, notably those of William of Shoreham and Richard Rolle, the hermit of Hampole.
The First Complete English Bible
In the fourteenth century, there were still at least three principal dialects in England. This may have been the factor that discouraged the Church's scholars from producing an English Bible. Whatever the reason, it is regrettable that nothing seems to have been done, for in 1380 a complete English Bible was issued under heretical auspices. This is the Bible usually attributed to John Wycliffe, a Yorkshire clergyman, who denied transubstantiation and papal supremacy. Wycliffe is claimed by Protestants as one of the earliest of their number, and not without good reason, for like them he exaggerated the importance of the Bible as the source of revealed truth to the complete disregard of the teaching Church. Holding such views, it was only natural that Wycliffe should have a special interest in spreading the Bible among his prospective converts, Though most scholars no longer hold that Wycliffe himself had much, if anything at all, to do with the actual work of translating this Bible, it is probable that it was the result of his instigation. A second, improved edition of the Wycliffe Bible was published eight years later, in 1388. A number of the extant copies of this Bible possess a prologue which contains the heretical teachings of Wycliffe and his Lollard followers.
How widespread the influence of the Wycliffe Bible may have been, we have little knowledge. Certainly the difference in dialect, the relatively small number of literate persons, and the great price of a manuscript Bible (we know that one sold for 10 pounds at the time) kept this influence within bounds. Yet, it is interesting to speculate how much of the latent inclination to Protestantism that was to be so easily enkindled in the sixteenth century may have been the result of ideas circulated through this early Bible translation.
The changes in the language in the century following the publication of the Wycliffe Bible were so great that, when printing was introduced into England in 1176 by Caxton, no one so much as thought of printing the now outmoded translation.
Nine English Bibles Appeared in Sixteenth Century
We come then to the sixteenth century, which is without doubt the most interesting in the story of the English Bible. In the space of eighty-five years, from 1526 to 1611, there were produced nine distinct English Bibles. Eight of these nine versions were Protestant in origin. The motive of the Protestants in issuing the Bible in the vernacular was by no means the unselfish desire to place the Word of God into the hands of an allegedly poor, benighted, priest-ridden people. On the contrary, the Bible, often armed with tendentious notes and biased renderings, was cleverly intended as an effective instrument of propaganda.
The first English Bible to be issued since the days of Wycliffe was that of William Tyndale, who has been given the title of "Father of the English Bible." Tyndale was a cleric, and may even have been a priest, though, if this is true, he was certainly an unorthodox one. We first hear of him being called to an episcopal court for preaching heresy in open-air gatherings through the countryside. Some time after this predicament, he seems to have conceived the idea of making an English translation of the New Testament. Following the practice of poor authors of those times, he sought for a wealthy patron to finance his project. At last he persuaded a prosperous London cloth-merchant, Humphrey Monmouth, to take him under his wing. After securing a patron, Tyndale crossed over to Germany, which by 1525 was sufficiently Protestant to be fairly safe for a man of his theological leanings. He seems to have spent some time at Wittenberg, where he may very well have met Martin Luther himself. Whether he did or not, Luther's impress was to be clearly apparent in his future work. By the Autumn of 1525, he was in Cologne with the New Testament finished, and was busy supervising the printing of the work. Since England was still Catholic at this time, it was necessary to have the Bibles printed abroad and smuggled into the country.
The whole plot was uncovered purely by accident by a man named Cochlaeus, who was an outstanding German apologist for the Catholic faith. From a few indiscreet remarks dropped by a printer, he learned of the conspiracy to Lutheranize England by means of this new Bible. Inviting the printer to a nearby tavern, Cochlaeus led him on till he discovered that 6000 copies had been ordered by Tyndale, and that the project was being backed by English merchants. The municipal authorities were immediately informed, but Tyndale somehow learned of the impending danger in time, and made his escape up the Rhine to Worms, carrying the printed sheets with him. Meanwhile Henry VIII had been warned, and orders were sent out to keep a close watch over all ports. From the beginning of 1526 on, the new Bible began coming into the country, and in spite of the vigorous attempts to stop them many copies entered England.
Tyndale now began work on the Old Testament. By 1530 the Pentateuch was finished and published from Antwerp. At the same time he corrected and revised the New Testament, issuing a new edition in 1534. The Tyndale Bible was never to be completed, however, for in May, 1535, the authorities apprehended him and imprisoned him in Vilvorde Castle near Brussels. After being degraded from the clerical state, he was given over to the secular arm, and in the following year executed by strangulation and fire.
Tyndale's Bible Influenced All its Successors
Of all the Protestant Bibles in English, Tyndale's is the most significant in its influence. In the words of Dr. Goodspeed, "none of these (Coverdale to King James) is more than a revision of Tyndale, and his stamp remains on the modern versions of 1881 and 1901. To the familiar forms of the English New Testament Tyndale contributed not only more than any other man, but more than all others combined. He has shaped the religious vocabulary of the English-speaking world."
Tyndale had based his translation on the Greek and Hebrew, rather than on the Latin Vulgate. The manuscript texts he made use of were not the best, however. As auxiliaries, he seems to have made use of both the Vulgate and the German translation of Luther. The English of this version is simple and direct; in fact, the later King James Bible has been estimated to be nine-tenths Tyndale. To forward his heretical beliefs, the traditional sense of many words was deliberately altered: for example, "congregation" was used for "church," "favor" for "grace," "image" for "idol," "senior" for "priest." The essential characteristic of this Bible is its "pestilent glosses" in which the Church, the Pope, and the clergy in general are bitterly assailed. Later Protestant versions were to mollify or eliminate tendentiousness, but there is not one that did not feel the influence of William Tyndale. To him belongs the distinction of producing the first printed Bible in the English language.
Appearance of the Coverdale Bible
In the ten years between the first edition of Tyndale's Bible and his death, it is estimated that 50,000 copies of this version reached England. Henry VIII had now become convinced that something should be done to provide the common people with an English Bible, one that would be less heretical than Tyndale's. At this period, the process for Henry's divorce was going on, but there had been no break as yet with Rome. The King's idea was an official translation put forth by the Bishops. An English priest, Miles Coverdale, whose sympathies lay in the Protestant camp and who had certain connections with Thomas Cromwell, the Secretary of State, decided to take advantage of the situation and put forth a translation of his own. Though he had had to leave England for his heretical beliefs some years before, he had kept in touch with Cromwell, and was assured that no obstacles would be put in the way of his new version. In 1535, then, both Testaments were completed, the work printed in Zurich, and shipped from there into England.
Unlike his predecessor, Coverdale translated only from the Latin and German, since he was unskilled in Greek and Hebrew. In the English style Tyndale's influence can be clearly perceived. The notes are less tendentious, and the old ecclesiastical terms such as "church," "sacrament," "grace" and the like are restored. The chief merit is the fine phrasing, much of which passed ultimately into the Authorized Version. The Coverdale Psalter is still used to this day in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer.
The First Authorized English Version
The year 1537 saw the first English authorized version, the so-called Matthew's Bible. This was the work of John Rogers, another heretical cleric, who had apostatized, married and emigrated to Wittenberg. While on the Continent he edited the version which he had published under the fictitious name of Thomas Matthew. Hardly a new translation, it is made up of parts of the two earlier Bibles, with very few alterations. Matthew's Bible is not outstanding for any merit of its own, but owes its significance to the fact that it was used extensively in succeeding translations. Another version, that of Richard Taverner, appeared in 1539. It is of little importance, however, but is worthy of mention as the only English Bible of the time translated by a layman.
Besides the Taverner Bible, 1539 also marks the publication of the Great Bible. This was an attempt at compromise, since the earlier translations had appealed only to those groups whose prejudices were catered to in their notes. All annotations were to be avoided in this new translation. Though his own Bible had appeared only four years previously, Miles Coverdale acted as editor. The result was not by any means a direct translation; in fact, it has been aptly called "a patchwork of revision."
Printing had reached a higher state of perfection in Paris, and thus plans were made to have the Great Bible printed there. In the midst of the work, however, the agents of the Inquisition stepped in, arresting the printer and confiscating the printed sheets. By means of bribery, the sheets which had been ordered burned were packed away in four great vats and shipped off to England where the job was completed.
In the following year, 1540, a revised edition was issued. An interesting feature of this Bible is its title-page — a woodcut done by Holbein, showing King Henry VIII with Cranmer and Cromwell distributing Bibles to the people.
The Geneva or Non-Conformist Bible
Eighteen years passed before the next translation was made. During Queen Mary Tudor's brief reign, Catholicism had been restored, and many of the heretical bibles were burned. Perhaps a Catholic version would have been prepared if the Queen had been granted a longer life. But with Mary's death England once more plunged into schism, and Catholic scholars were dispersed over the Continent. Under Mary many of the more fanatical Protestants had gone into voluntary exile to various Continental centers of Protestantism. Geneva served as their principal gathering-place, and soon became a propaganda center for extreme heterodox views. One of the productions of these English Calvinists was the Geneva Bible. Largely the work of William Whittingham, who was John Calvin's brother-in-law, it was issued in parts between 1557 and 1560. The Geneva Bible quickly became the Bible of the non-conformist lower middle-class, just as the Great Bible was the Bible of the gentry and the Established Church. In its text, it is substantially Matthew, with alterations from the Great Bible and from Beza's work in French. It differed from the Great Bible in its numerous controversial notes. Because of its extreme Protestantism, the Geneva Bible was very unpopular with the Church of England.
With copies of this Puritan version circulating in such great numbers, the bishops decided that there was need for a new version to replace the now outmoded Great Bible and to offset the influence of the Geneva version. Since this new translation was commissioned by the Anglican hierarchy, it received the name of the Bishops' Bible. It was to follow the Great Bible except where the Hebrew or Greek text demanded alterations. The Bishops' Bible, issued in 1568, never reached the popularity of the Geneva, to which it was inferior both in accuracy and literary beauty. It was to be used later on, though, as the official basis for the King James Bible.
The First Catholic English Version
Over half a century had now passed since the first Protestant version of the Bible had been issued in English. This same period had seen England go first into schism and then into definite heresy. Many scholars had held to the old Faith, but they had been forced to flee to the Continent, where they lived here and there in small colonies. It was eventually seen that, if the Church was to be ready for a future restoration in England and if the faith of the remaining Catholics was to be preserved, priests would have to be trained on the Continent for the English Mission. With this in mind William (later Cardinal) Allen founded the English College at Douay in Flanders in 1568. It was from this institution that the Catholic English version was to come forth.
The new version had the object, according to Cardinal Allen, "of healthfully counteracting the corruptions whereby the heretics have lamentably deluded almost the whole of our countrymen." Dr. Gregory Martin was the principal translator; he prepared the first draft, which was then revised by Allen and Richard Bristow. The translation was complete in 1578, but at the time, because of political exigencies, the College had been moved for a time to Rheims, and hence the first part of the Catholic Bible received the name of the Rheims New Testament. The Old Testament, finished soon afterwards, was not to be published for another twenty years because of lack of funds. By 1609, when the Old Testament was issued, the College had returned to Douay, with the result that the whole translation is known as the Douay-Rheims.
The new version proved a godsend to the English missionary priests and laity. Nor did it by any means pass unnoticed by the Protestants, as we shall see in estimating its influence on the King James Bible.
Appraisal of the Douay-Rheims Version
Like every other Bible of its time, the Douay-Rheims had its bad points as well as its good points. It has received much criticism for its exaggerated Latinity. This was caused both from the fact that the translation was made from the Latin Vulgate, and also that the translators felt that many expressions could not be adequately rendered in English, and thus kept the original or coined a word very close to the original. For example, such words as azymes, parasceve, corbona, and sancta sanctorum find a place in the text.
On the other hand, in many instances improvements were made over the previous versions. Dr. Martin faithfully compared his translation throughout with the Greek text, and it is also known that he was well acquainted with the earlier English attempts, though their influence is relatively small.
The Catholic Douay-Rheims Bible has a twofold significance. It was, as remarked, important in its influence on the standard Protestant Bible, the King James Version. But primarily it is noteworthy in that it was to be the Bible of English-speaking Catholics from 1582 for 150 years. In 1749 the text went under a further revision by Bishop Challoner, and it is this re-edited Douay-Rheims Bible that was in almost universal use till the publication of the Confraternity New Testament in 1911. The Confraternity edition is a further revision of the Challoner-Rheims text. Thus, our present-day New Testament is intimately related to the first English Catholic Bible of 1582.
Preparation of the King James Version
As we have seen, during the last decades of the sixteenth century, the Bishops' Bible and the Geneva Bible vied with each other among Protestants. With Queen Elizabeth's death and the enthronement of James I, general dissatisfaction with all previous Protestant attempts manifested itself. In 1604, at a conference of the clergy at Hampton Court, Dr. John Reynolds of Oxford proposed that all the Scripture scholars of the kingdom be commissioned to produce a more suitable version. The King, himself a Scripture scholar, approved and issued the official decree. Fifty-four scholars, divided into six companies (two to work on the New Testament and four on the Old), were chosen. When one company had finished a portion, it was sent to the other companies for correction, and then passed on by a general board of editors. Of all the English translations of the time, it was the most systematic in its production.
Strictly speaking, the King James Bible (for such it was to be called) is a revision rather than a full translation. The basis was the Bishops' Bible, but greater effort was made to bring the translation closer to the original languages. Work did not actually begin till 1607, and it was three years before the end was reached. Published in 1611, it became the third English "Authorized Version," by which name it is also known.
Merits and Flaws of the King James Version
The King James is without doubt the greatest of the Protestant Bibles. It remains to this day in high esteem for its unsurpassed literary beauty. It is not without flaws, however. In many places it is extremely uneven, due to the great number of revisions and the lack of sufficient editorial supervision. It has numerous inconsistencies: for example, in Synoptic parallels while the wording is identical in the Greek, we may find at times three widely differing English renderings. Furthermore, it must be kept in mind that most of its excellent diction was culled from Tyndale or his successors.
The debt of King James' revisers to the Catholic Rheims New Testament was also by no means inconsiderable. Dr. Carleton of Trinity College, Dublin, has made a very thorough study of the influence of Rheims on the Authorized Version in which he gives a list that runs to 165 pages of words and expressions which either certainly or at least possibly were adopted from the Catholic translation.
The cavalcade of the English Bible came to a halt for the time being with the publication of the Authorized Version in 1611. English-speaking Catholics now possessed a complete Bible in the Douay-Rheims, and Protestants gradually adopted the newer King James Bible in place of the earlier versions. These two Bibles were to remain standard for three hundred years. It was only during the last years of the nineteenth century and during the present century that general interest among people in general and increased activity among Scripture scholars have given promise of a new "golden age" for the English Bible.
© Joseph F. Wagner, Inc.
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